Istanbul is characterized as having either a,humid subtropical climate according to Köppen climate classification system, or a warm summer Mediterranean climate according to the updated Köppen-Geiger classification system.However, due to its vast size, diverse topography, and maritime location, Istanbul exhibits a multitude of distinct microclimates. Northern parts of the city, for example, express characteristics of an oceanic climate. Summer weather in Istanbul is moderately warm, with the temperature in July and August averaging 23 °C (73°F).Extreme heat, however, is uncommon, as temperatures rise above 32 °C (90 °F) on only five days per year on average.

Rainfall is also uncommon during the summer, with only four or five rainy days per month. Winters are cold, wet and often snowy, with the temperature in January and February averaging 4 °C(39°F).Snowfalls tend to be heavy, but snowcover and temperatures below freezing rarely last more than a few days. Spring and autumn are mild, but often wet and unpredictable; chilly winds from the northwest and warm gusts from the south—sometimes in the same day—have the tendency to cause fluctuations in temperature. Istanbul has a persistently high, humidty, which can exacerbate the moderate summer heat. The humidity is especially salient during the morning hours, when humidity generally reaches eighty percent and fog is very common. The city receives fog an average of 228 days each year, with the highest concentration of foggy days being in the winter months, although it usually dissipates by noontime. Thunderstorms are uncommon, occurring just 23 days each year, but they occur most frequently in the summer and early autumn months. Istanbul has an annual average of 124 days with significant precipitation, which together generate around 844 mm (33 in) of rain. The highest recorded temperature was 40.5 °C (105°F) on 12 July 2000, and the lowest recorded temperature was−16.1 °C(3°F) on 9 February 1927.The highest recorded rainfall in 24 hours was 227 millimetres (8.9 in) on 16 October 1985.The highest recorded snow cover was 80 centimetres (31in) (and more than 60 centimetres (24 in) at the coast) in March 1987

Apart from being the largest city and former political capital of the country, Istanbul has always been the centre of Turkey's economic life because of its location as a junction of international land and sea trade routes. Istanbul is also Turkey's largest industrial centre. It employs approximately 20% of Turkey's industrial labour and contributes 38% of Turkey's industrial workspace. Istanbul and its surrounding province produce cotton, fruit, olive oil silk, and tobacco. Food processing, textile production, oil products, rubber, metal ware, leather, chemicals, pharmaceuticals, electronics, glass, machinery, automotive, transport vehicles, paper and paper products, and alcholic drinks are among the city's major industrial products. According to Forbes magazine, Istanbul had a total of 35 billionaires as of March 2008, ranking fourth in the world.

Originally established as the Ottoman Stock Exchange (Dersaadet Tahvilat Borsası) in 1866, and reorganised to its current structure at the beginning of 1986, the Istanbul Stock Exchange(ISE) is the sole securities market of Turkey. During the 19th century and early 20th century, Bankalar Caddesi (Banks Street) in Galata was the financial centre of the Ottomon Empire where the headquarters of the Ottoman Central Bank (established as theBank-ı Osmanî in 1856, and later reorganised as the Bank-ı Osmanî-i Şahane in 1863)and the Ottoman Stock Exchange (1866) were located. Bankalar Caddesi continued to be Istanbul's main financial district until the 1990s, when most Turkish banks began moving their headquarters to the modern central business districts ofLevent and Maslak In 1995, the Istanbul Stock Exchange moved to its current building in the Istinye quarter.

Today, the city generates 55% of Turkey's trade and 45% of the country's wholesale trade, and generates 21.2% of Turkey's gross national products. Istanbul contributes 40% of all taxes collected in Turkey and produces 27.5% of Turkey's national product. In 2005 the City of Istanbul had a GDP of $133 billion.In 2005 companies based in Istanbul made exports worth $41,397,000,000 and imports worth $69,883,000,000; which corresponded to 56.6% and 60.2% of Turkey's exports and imports, respectively, in that year.[ Istanbul is one of the most important tourism spots of Turkey. There are thousands of hotels and other tourist oriented industries in the city, catering to both vacationers and visiting professionals. In 2006 a total of 23,148,669 tourists visited Turkey, most of whom entered the country through the airports and seaports of Istanbul and AntalyaThe total number of tourists who entered Turkey through Ataturk International Airport and Sabiha Gokcen International airport in Istanbul reached 5,346,658, rising from 4,849,353 in 2005.stanbul is also one of the world's major conference destinations and is an increasingly popular choice for the world's leading international associations

Think of shopping in Istanbul and it is probably the Grand Bazaar that first springs to mind.

The Grand Bazaar first saw its beginnings as 2 wooden bedestans, or warehouses with individual cells for stalls, named the Cevahir Bedesten and Sandal Bedesten, erected during Mehmet the Conqueror's reign towards the end of the fifteenth century. The chance of being destroyed by fire necessitated that they be rebuilt in stone and they have since been absorbed into the core of the Bazaar today. Originally its profits were to go to compensate the ongoing expenses of the Aya Sophia. It invariably grew and expanded, as did its trade, incorporating more and more shops into its environs. Today it covers an entire area of 30 hectares and has almost 4400 shops, 40 hans (a type of night stop-over where dealers could unload their wares) and encompasses over 60 streets.
Its nucleus consists of 3 parallel streets between Nurosmaniye and Beyazit, the first comprising mostly of jewelery outlets, the second of carpets, and the third of textiles. In the days gone by, each class of wares operated under a traditional guild system whereby one stall having reached a particular target sale that day would then direct further customers to other stalls in that guild. In this way they supported each others trade and formed a closely knit family. However this tradition no longer continues today.

Shopping centers have become a part of daily life in Istanbul, and there are now several in different parts of the city. They fit in well with the rapid pace of life today, saving precious time by offering a wider diversity under a single roof. Istanbul is no stranger to the shopping center, with its traditional covered bazaars like the Kapaliçarsi, (the famous Grand Bazaar), the Egyptian Bazaar and shopping streets like Mahmutpasa. But in past times shopping expeditions to these centers were different in concept. In the days leading up to important events like religious holidays, weddings or engagements, it was customary for the whole family to go together to buy new clothes, shoes, handkerchiefs, and household linen and other domestic articles for the trousseaus of girls about to be married. On such special occasions shopping had a ceremonial character.

Modern shopping centers, on the other hand, are not only places to shop but also to pass the time and in various leisure pursuits and forms of entertainment. While these modern malls cannot be said to harmonize with the cultural texture of the city in architectural terms, and are not perhaps aesthetic, they make full use of the latest technology and offer facilities completely unrelated to shopping. For example, in the center of Galleria there is an ice skating rink, while Carousel has a roundabout in the middle, to name but a few. Galleria was Istanbul’s - and indeed Turkey’s - first modern shopping mall. Situated in the western suburb of Ataköy, it was opened by then prime minister Turgut Özal in 1988 and espoused as a symbol of modern life. For several years Galleria was without competitors, but it had blazed

There are four major sections of the city with touristic interest. Please click on the pictures for more of the items.

1. Old Town: Mostly the region around Sultanahmet
2. Beyoglu, (Pera District)
3. Bosphorus
4. Prince's Islands (suggested during summer)

Asian side is a residential area only. Nothing of historic or special interest exist, except the Asian side of Bosphorus. It is nicer to live there since it is quieter compared to European side.

(Ahmediye Cami, Sultanahmet Mosque). Built 1609-1619, by court architect Mehmet Aga, a student of the renowned Sinan (responsible for the Suleymaniye palace). The Ahmedhiye Cami was Aga's way of showing the world he could outdo not only his master but also the Byzantine architects who designed the nearby St. Sophia cathedral, which the Blue Mosque resembles in many ways. Aga outfitted his design with no less than six minarets. The popular name Blue Mosque derives from the exquisite blue Iznik tiles which cover the inside

Originally, Constantinople's Church of the Holy Wisdom, commissioned by Justinian I and constructed from 532-537(!) to the designs of Anthemius of Tralles and Isodorus of Miletus. It was converted to a mosque upon the Turkish conquest of Constantinople in 1453, at which time the four minarets were added, and hundreds of mosaics on the walls were covering over with plaster. Today it is a museum of Byzantine art, revealing both its Islamic heritage -- in the great discs suspended from the vaults, covered with Arabic script -- and its Christian heritage: a cross surmounting the main dome

The largest and most imposing mosque in Istanbul, the city of domes and minarets, is the Suleymaniye. The aesthetic supremacy of its interior and exterior and its perfect proportions have been captivating the visitors for centuries. The Suleymaniye Mosque is an architectural masterpiece.

The complex surrounding the mosque was composed of schools, a library, baths, public kitchens, caravanserai, a hospital and shops. The beauty of the exterior of the mosque is best appreciated from a distance. This imperial edifice can be seen in all its magnificence from the Galata Tower or the Galata side of the Golden Horn.

Istanbul's Byzantine Hippodrome was the heart of Constantinople's political and sporting life, and the scene of games and riots through 500 years of Ottoman history as well.

It's now a calm city park called the At Meydani (Horse Grounds) because of its function in Ottoman times The site of the original Hippodrome, which extends away from the Sultanahmet mosque was laid out in 196 by the Roman emperor Severus. Constantine the Great turned it into a vast stadium capable of seating a hundred thousand spectators who watched horse and chariot races, gladiatorial combats, and other spectacles.

The Hippodrome was where the heart of Constantinople's social life beat and also where popular displeasure was given voice and sometimes erupted into riots and rebellion. Like other parts of the city, the Hippodrome was lavishly decorated with monuments and works of art of which only three examples from the Spina (the long structure running down the center of the stadium's course) have survived.

A second Spina monument that has survived is called "Orme Sutun" in Turkish and is known as the Column of Constantine Porphyrogenetus, after the Byzantine emperor Constantine VII Porphyrogenetus (912-59) who sheathed the roughly-built pillar of stone in bronze. The bronze plaques were stripped away and looted during the Latin invasion of 1204.

The third monument on the "Spina" is also the oldest work from the ancient Greek world to have survived in Istanbul. Known in Turkish as "Yilanli Sutun", the Serpentine Column was brought here from the Temple of Apollo in Delphi. The shaft of this unusual monument consists of the intertwined bodies of three serpents whose heads originally supported a gold bowl measuring three meter's in diameter. The bowl disappeared long before the Christian era but the shaft of the column and part of the head of one of the serpents (albeit in a somewhat fragmented state) have nevertheless survived.

The Basilica Cistern, also called the Yerebatan Sarayi or Yerebatan Sarnici, is the largest of several hundred ancient cisterns that still lie beneath the city of Istanbul, Turkey.

The cistern was built by Emperor Constantinus I during the 4th century and was restored and extended by Justinianus in the 6th century. The water came from the Belgrad forest via the Cebecikoy arch. At the far end of the Cistern, there are two heads of Medusa which are put upside down or horizontal. The Medusa Heads are taken from an ancient Pagan site but they complement the pillars very beautifully and add a different taste to the building.

The world's biggest covered historic Bazaar with more than 58 streets and 4000 shops. It is one of the most famous spots of Istanbul, always filled with crowds who not only come to shop but to window-shop carpets, jewellery, leathers,handcrafts, home decoration items and many more.

The Grand Bazaar includes more than 4000 stores taday, and it is surrounded on all sides by tens of hans (commereial buildings). The hans that used to host caravans now host workshops where many goods are manufactured. In the Valde Han that was built in 1650 and has a set of stairs with 200 steps, there is no longer any sale. Carpet washing and repairs are carried out in the Mercan Ali Pasa Han and the Cebeci Han.

Coloured Anatolian weavings can be found in the Mercan Cukur Han, and beds, blankets and linen in the Safran Han. Another of the most beautiful hans in the bazaar is the Zincirli Han. Jewellery processors are the majority here, and it has pink-painted walls that soften even the greyest air in winter. In Cebeci Han, on the other hand, you can find port-hale lids, bells, fans, watches, to torches, propellers, anchors in the shop where second-hand sea materials are said, get your carpets repaired in carpet repairing workshops and find replicas of old artifacts at the coppersmith 's shop in the corner. One of the two bedestens that form the core of the bazaar is the Ic Bedesten (inner bedesten), a.k.a. the Cevahir Bedesteni.

The other is the Sandal Bedesteni, taking its name from a kind of fabric woven using silk and cotton threads alternately for each line. This is where you get attracted by the gleam of antiquities. You can find antique specialists for ancient objects, porcelains, silver, ceramics and ornamented engravings, and tour the stores filled up with ancient, valuable and beautiful artifacts. You can touch coffee cups of finest porcelain, silver cigarette boxes from the 18th century, spoons, glasses, candlesticks with stems of coloured glass, and see the jewels of the Ottoman era.

Carpets, kilims, sumachs, 'cicim's... Next to the traditional carpets coming from Usak, Gordes, Sivas, Ladik, Kayseri, Konya, and Hereke, the tulles flowing in from the east of Konya plain are also worthy of attention.There are also the Filikli spreads, the production of which has stopped since many years ago. The fabrics known as Angora or mohair used to be woven in 60 cm wide and 200 cm long pieces, then brought together in threes tir fours to form wall covers, bed spreads or sitting groups. These, too, are among the artifacts that come out of the trunks of the Grand Bazaar.

The Grand Bazaar is a whole culture in itself, a whole wride ocean that has preserved its existence for many centuries. Let's enter into the gleaming world of the Grand Bazaar through one of its 18 gates, find its hidden prizes and mix into its cultural atmoshphere.

The Basilica Cistern, also called the Yerebatan Sarayi or Yerebatan Sarnici, is the largest of several hundred ancient cisterns that still lie beneath the city of Istanbul, Turkey.

The cistern was built by Emperor Constantinus I during the 4th century and was restored and extended by Justinianus in the 6th century. The water came from the Belgrad forest via the Cebecikoy arch. At the far end of the Cistern, there are two heads of Medusa which are put upside down or horizontal. The Medusa Heads are taken from an ancient Pagan site but they complement the pillars very beautifully and add a different taste to the building.

The second largest covered market in the city, was part of the mosque complex. Other surviving parts of the complex are the tombs and the magnificent fountain. On the mosque side of the L-shaped Spice Bazaar, there is a popular flower market and cafes, and fish, vegetable and grocery stores occupy the other side. Once all of the shops inside the bazaar used to sell spices, but over the time some have turned into dried fruit, grocery and gift shops or jewelers. It is one of the attractive sites in Istanbul with its vivacious and distinctive atmosphere.

The Galata Tower (Turkish Galata Kulesi) is located in Istanbul in Turkey to the north of the Golden Horn. One of the city's most striking landmarks, it is a huge, cone-capped cylinder that dominates the skyline on the Galata side of the Golden Horn. The original tower was destroyed during the Fourth Crusade, but it was rebuilt as the Tower of Christ in 1348 during an expansion of the Genoese colony in Constantinople. It was the apex of the fortifications of Genoese Galata. The view from it is spectacular. Give it a try.

The architectural structure of the Maiden's Tower (Kız Kulesi) dates back to 341 BC. This cape, which was an extension of the Bosphorous straits at the time (there are rumours that it was a peninsula before) used to be called "vus". At this date, after being a mausoleum built on marble columns for the wife of Commander Chares, a chain was pulled from its location at Sarayburnu to the island where the tower was located, in 410 BC, to make it a customs area controlling the entries and exits of the Bosphorous strait. At 1110 AD, the first apparent structure (tower) was built by the Emperor Manuel Comnenos.

The Church of the Holy Savior of Chora, called in Turkish, Kariye Camii, is after Hagia Sophia the most interesting Byzantine church in the city. Not so much for the building itself, pretty as that is, as because of the superb series of mosaics and frescoes which it preserves and which have been magnificently restored and cleaned by the Byzantine Institute of America.

The Princes' Islands are a chain of nine islands off the coast of Istanbul, Turkey, in the Sea of Marmara. The largest island is Büyükada. Today, the islands are popular tourist destinations for day trips via ferry from Istanbul. Motorized vehicles are forbidden on most of the islands, so visitors explore the islands by foot, bicycle, in horse-drawn carriages (fayton), or by riding donkeys.

Istiklal Caddesi (Istiklal Avenue), is one of the most famous avenues in Istanbul, Turkey. Located in the Beyoglu neighborhood of Istanbul, it is a gallant pedestrian street, approximately 3 km long, that houses tens of exquisite boutiques, music and bookstores, art galleries, cinemas, theaters, cafés, bars, libraries, pubs, coffeehouses, historical patisseries, chocolateries, technological centers, and restaurants, all of which are seamlessly integrated into the elegant 19th century Turkish architecture.

The cosmopolitan Avenue also houses an array of historical and politically significant buildings, such as the Çiçek Pasajı ("The Flower Courtyard", where small, intimate restaurants and taverns are found), Balık Pazarı ("The Fish Bazaar"), the St.Antoine, Santa Maria and the Armenian Churches (among many others), several sinagouges, a mosque, academic institutions established by various European nations such as Germany, Italy, Austria, and France in the early 19th century, consulates of several nations including France, Greece, Sweden, Armenia, Russia, Netherlands, Spain, Sweden, and United Kingdom.